Direct PCR using Spodoptera frugiperda eggs as template Loto, Flavia del Valle; Baigori, Mario Domingo; Pera, Licia Maria Introduction: PCR is widely employed in a variety of experimental applications such as studies of Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf), an important pest in America. Objective: To optimize direct PCR technique using Sf samples. Material and methods: PCR reactions were performed in 25 μL containing: 21.4 μl sterile water, 0.1 μl of each oligonucleotide primers (JM76 and JM77), 5 μl 5X Taq buffer and 0.2 μl Taq DNA polymerase. One, two or three eggs were added to the reaction mixture. Negative and positive controls were performed with distilled water and purified DNA, respectively. Amplification was performed with the following program: An initial denaturation step at 97ºC for 5 min and then 35 cycles of the following: 1 min at 94ºC, 1 min at 58ºC, 2 min at 72ºC, and a final extension at 72ºC 2 min. Results and Discussion: Samples with 2 eggs were amplified with the same quality as samples amplified with purified DNA. Only one of three amplifications assays was positive in samples with one egg. Samples with 3 eggs were not amplified, probably due to excessive DNA or PCR inhibitors. The method is simple, fast and cost saving. This work was supported by grants PICTO-UNT 761 and PIP 6062 (CONICET).

Colonization and domestication of seven species of larval-prepupal and pupal native new world Hymenopterous fruit fly (diptera: Tephritidae) parasitoids Aluja, Martin; Sivinski, John; Ovruski Alderete, Sergio Marcelo; Guillen, Larissa; Lopez, Maurilio; Cancino, Jorge; Torres Anaya, Armando; Gallegos Chan, Guadalupe; Ruiz, Lia; Cordova, Guadalupe; Martinez Ramirez, Alejandro Techniques used to colonize and domesticate seven native New World species of hymenopterous parasitoids that attack flies within the genus Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae) were developed: Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti), Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck), Opius hirtus (Fischer), Utetes anastrephae (Viereck) (all Braconidae, Opiinae), Aganaspis pelleranoi (Bréthes) and Odontosema anastrephae Borgmeier (both Figitidae, Eucoilinae) (all larval-pupal parasitoids), and the pupal parasitoid Coptera haywardi (Ogloblin) (Diapriidae, Diapriinae) were reared successfully on Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) larvae or pupae reared on artificial diet. Descriptions of the different rearing techniques used throughout the domestication process are described to help researchers to colonize local parasitoids.  We also describe handling procedures such as number of hosts in parasitization units and compare optimal host and female age, differences in parasitism rate, developmental time, life expectancy and variation in sex ratios in each parasitoid species over various generations. In the case of D. crawfordi and C. haywardi we also provide partial information on mass-rearing techniques such as cage type, parasitization unit, larval irradiation dose and adult handling.

Violaceae Sanso, Andrea Mariel; Xifreda, Cecilia Carmen; Seo, Micaela Noemi En base al análisis  de ejemplares de herbario y sobre la bibliografía disponible se revisaron críticamente todas las  especies de Violaceae existentes en Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay y sur de Brasil. Para cada taxón se aportan datos como su nombre válido, autor, referencias bibliográficas, hábito, status, elevación, presencia en cada país y si se trata de una especie nativa, introducida o exótica para la región citada. Se citan asimismo especímenes representativos (voucher) y, en algunos casos, se añaden notas para aclarar la nomenclatura o dar otra información necesaria. Se enumeran además sinómimos, taxones excluídos, citas dudosas y taxones dudosos.   La familia Violaceae está representada en este área por 4 géneros, 125 especies, 103 de ellas, endémicas. El número de especies por género es el siguiente: Anchietea A. St.-Hil.: 1, Hybanthus Jacq.: 20, Noisettia Kunth: 1 y Viola L.: 103

A high-resolution record of deepwater processes in a confined paleofjord, Quebrada de las Lajas, Argentina Dykska, Mason; Milana, Juan Pablo; Kneller, Ben Fjords can become so overdeepened below sea level during protracted glaciations that they fill with hundreds of meters of seawater when glacio-eustatic rise occurs during and following deglaciation. Fjords, therefore, can host true deep-water environments, which are commonly laterally confined but longitudinally extensive. Outcrops of ancient paleofjord sediments offer three-dimensional views of the evolution of these deep-water, confined sedimentary environments, where the factors controlling sediment supply are both climatic (deglaciation and eustasy) and tectonic (isostatic rebound) in origin. Quebrada de las Lajas, near San Juan, western Argentina, preserves a Pennsylvanian glacial to postglacial succession that was deposited in an overdeepened paleofjord. The sedimentary succession exposed in the paleofjord is divided into four evolutionary stages: Stage I was an ice-contact delta and proglacial lake, Stage II was a relatively quiet, deep-water marine environment punctuated by turbidity currents, Stage III was an aggradational conf ined sheet system, and Stage IV was the subaqueous part of a progradational, coarsening- and shoaling-upward fan delta. The entire sedimentary succession comprises approximately 350 m (1150 ft) of remaining exposed thickness. Each of the four evolutionary stages has distinct architectural characteristics associated with its depositional environments. Stage I is characterized by predominantly lobe-shaped, sheetlike conglomerates and sandstones associated with the ice-contact delta and a subaqueous fan. Stage I also preserves several small, turbidite channel bodies and a small-scale, highly aggradational channel-levee system with a conglomeratic channel axis and thin-bedded sandstone and siltstone levees. Stage II is characterized by thin beds of shale and siltstone punctuated by medium beds of sandstone and conglomerate. All of these beds have sheetlike, unconfined geometries. Several small, locally confined channel bodies within Stage II are characterized by turbidite sandstone fills and commonly are located on top of Stage I mass-transport deposits. Stage III is characterized by ubiquitous, thick, sheetlike turbidite sandstone beds with a very blocky character, which thin toward the margins of the paleofjord. Stage IV is characterized by more localized (lobe-shaped?), sheetlike sandstone and conglomerate bodies. Mass-transport deposits are common throughout the paleofjord fill. They include deformed beds, chaotic and mixed gravels, sands, and fine-grained successions, and slumps and slides of various scales, including slump bodies >500 m (>1640 ft) long and wide, and more than 50 m (164 ft) thick. Mass-transport deposits are present in all stages, but are most abundant in Stages I and IV.

Biología Celular de los Oligodendrocitos Boccaccio, Graciela Lidia; Thomas, Maria Gabriela; Loschi, Mariela En este capítulo nos enfocaremos en la biología celular de los oligodendrocitos, concentrándonos en la sofisticada maquinaria celular responsable de la formación de la mielina. Discutiremos cómo la célula mielinizante ajusta sus funciones vitales para lograr sobrevivir frente a condiciones de estrés, e intenta potenciar su capacidad de remielinización. Finalmente, describiremos brevemente la relevancia de la interacción mielina-axón en la biología de ambos tipos celulares.

Modification of nitrogenous compounds by lactic acid bacteria interactions Manca, Maria Cristina; Aredes Fernández, Pedro Adrián The microorganisms are members of larger environmental communities. Each one has an effect on its environment and influences all the other residents of the community. The effect of one population on another can be detrimental to either or both, neutralistic or beneficial to both. Physical conditions and chemical composition of the niche are crucial determinants of which species can develop. Protein is an important carbon and nitrogen source for bacterial communities. This compound is only available for growth when proteolytic enzymes are present in the extracellular medium because only small peptides and free amino acids can be transported across the bacterial cell membrane. Mixed or co-culture system have been recognized to be effective for certain fermentations. In yogurt, Lactobacillus bulgaricus that has high proteolytic activity supply free amino acids to Streptococcus thermophilus growth establishing cooperation between both bacteria. In the symbiosis between lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on natural kefir starter, the Lact. helveticus strain produces amino acids that are utilized to create a symbiotic bioconsortium with the other LAB. This interaction enhanced lactic acid production and intensified cell growth activity compared to individual cultures. The accumulation of free amino acids including essential amino acids in the final kefir is greater than that of yogurt. It was determined that in a mixed culture of a proteolytic Oenococcus oeni strain with a non-proteolytic Pediococcus pentosaceus strain from wine, the former develop higher proteolytic activity than in pure culture. Consequently the cell growth and the amount of free essential amino acids increase for both microorganisms.

Empleo del modelo de Tarpley para la estimación de la radiación solar global mediante imágenes satelitales GOES en Argentina Righini, Raúl; Barrera, Daniel Florencio Se estudia el empleo de imágenes satelitales obtenidas en el rango visible del espectro electromagnético para estimar la radiación solar global (RSG) a nivel de superficie. Se emplea el algoritmo de Tarpley para realizar la estimación. Se obtienen las constantes de ajuste del modelo empleando datos de estaciones en tierra en cinco lugares de Argentina. Realizando un ajuste selectivo en función del índice de claridad (kt)e obtienen errores cuadráticos medios del orden del 17% para valores diarios y del 9% para valores medios mensuales. Se muestran posibles aplicaciones de la información así obtenida.; The use of satelite images obtained in the visible rank of the electromagnetic spectrum for estimate the global solar radiation is studied. The algorithm of Tarpley is used to realise the estimation. The constants of adjustment of the model are obtained using data of earth stations in five places of Argentina. Realising a selective adjustment based on clearness index (kt) average quadratic errors of the order of 17% for daily values and 9% for monthly average values are obtained. Possible applications of the data obtained are show.

Diversidad de modos reproductivos de anfibios de Corrientes, Chaco y Formosa Zaracho, Victor Hugo; Céspedez, J.A.; Álvarez, B.B. En este capítulo se presenta una compilación de las principales características reproductivas de los anuros, incluyendo información sobre características larvales, caracteres sexuales secundarios observados en machos y hembras de anfibios, tipos de cantos y sus respectivas funciones, y un breve resumen sobre el modo reproductivo de las especies que habitan el nordeste argentino y la importancia de su conocimiento para el avance científico.

Estudios genético-poblacionales de Caiman latirostris (Reptilia, Alligatoridae) en Santa Fe, Argentina: una revisión a través del tiempo Amavet, Patricia Susana; Rosso, Daniel Esteban; Markariani, Rosa; Larriera, Alejandro Los estudios genéticos en Caiman latirostris (Yacaré overo) en Santa Fe, Argentina, comenzaron con un análisis citogenético en comparación con Caiman yacare. El cariotipo en ambas especies consistió de 42 cromosomas, con un patrón de bandas C difuso y un solo par de cromosomas con NOR. Debido a la falta de diferencias claras entre ambos cariotipos, decidimos usar marcadores moleculares en el análisis de esta especie. Cuatro isoenzimas: Esterasas, Isocitrato Dehidrogenasa, Malato Dehidrogenasa, y Superóxido Dismutasa se analizaron en animales provenientes de cuatro poblaciones santafesinas. En todos los casos se encontraron valores nulos de heterocigosis. Se analizaron 7 primers para RAPD y sólo 13.73 % de 233 marcadores analizados resultaron polimórficos. Los resultados para polimorfismos, heterocigosis y número medio de alelos por locus en las poblaciones fueron niveles bajos a intermedios. El análisis de AMOVA indicó que casi toda la variación existe dentro de las poblaciones, significando que varios alelos son compartidos entre las poblaciones. Debido a que los marcadores RAPD pueden ser menos eficaces en detectar variaciones que los microsatélites en poblaciones de cocodrilianos, en estos momentos estamos comenzando a utilizar esta técnica en el análisis poblacional. Hasta el momento se han amplificado positivamente cuatro primers, y detectamos indicios de la existencia de más de un padre en tres familias. Los datos genéticos de especies nativas son fundamentales para establecer y evaluar planes de manejo, y el análisis de variabilidad es básico para el conocimiento biológico de las especies, aportando a la sistemática, la ecología y la biodiversidad.

Comportamiento animal y evolución Vassallo, Aldo Iván El aprendizaje social de comportamientos es característico de la especie humana y está en la base de lo que llamamos cultura. ¿Existe, aunque más no fuera en forma rudimentaria, en los animales?

Synthesis and Characterization of Photoswitchable Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles Fölling, Jonas; Polyakova, Svetlana; Belov, Vladimir; Van Blaaderen, Alfons; Bossi, Mariano Luis; Hell, Stefan W. We have designed and synthesized a new functional (amino reactive)highly efficient fluorescent molecular switch (FMS) with a photochromicdiarylethene and a rhodamine fluorescent dye. The reactive group in thisFMS -N-hydroxysuccinimide ester- allows selective labeling of aminocontaining molecules or other materials. In ethanolic solutions, thecompound displays a large fluorescent quantum yield of 52% and alarge fluorescence modulation ratio (94%) between two states that maybe interconverted withred and near-UV light. Silica nanoparticles incorporatingthe new FMS were prepared and characterized, and their spectroscopicand switching properties were also studied. The dye retained itsproperties after the incorporation into the silica, thereby allowing lightinducedreversible high modulation of the fluorescence signal of a singleparticle for up to 60 cycles, before undergoing irreversible photobleaching.Some applications of these particles in fluorescence microscopy arealso demonstrated. In particular, subdiffraction images of nanoparticleswere obtained, in the focal plane of a confocal microscope.

Temperature, conversion, and phase separation profiles during mold cure of a modified vinyl-ester resin Schroeder, Walter Fabian; Auad, M. L.; Soulé, Ezequiel Rodolfo In this work, morphological differences over the thickness of modified vinyl-ester (VE) samples are studied. A thermodynamic analysis based in the Flory-Rehner theory is proposed to evaluate the spinodal decomposition temperature evolution during the reaction. This model takes into account changes in (styrene-co-VE) copolymer composition and binary interaction parameters with conversion. Then, from the energy and mass balance equations, temperature and conversion profiles over the thickness as a function of reaction time are calculated. Combining these profiles with the proposed thermodynamic model, spinodal decomposition conversion graphs are constructed. To verify model predictions, a synthesized VE resin was modified with 7.5 wt% of poly(butadiene-co-acrylonitrile) vinyl terminated (VTBN) elastomer and then cured in molds of 3, 7, 12, and 20 mm thickness at 80°C. Fracture surfaces were observed by scanning electron microscopy showing morphological differences over thickness, which can be explained from the results obtained from the simulation.

Brain alterations in autoimmune and pharmacological models of diabetes mellitus: focus on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis disturbances Beauquis, Juan; Homo Delarche, Francoise; Revsin, Yanina; de Nicola, Alejandro Federico; Saravia, Flavia Eugenia Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is linked to an 'encephalopathy' explained by some features common to the aging process, degenerative and functional disorders of the central nervous system. In the present study we describe a manifest hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in two different experimental mouse models of T1D including the pharmacological one induced by streptozotocin and the spontaneous NOD (nonobese diabetic mice). The high expression of hypothalamic hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin were part to this alteration, together with elevated adrenal glucocorticoids and prominent susceptibility to stress. In the hippocampus of diabetic animals a marked astrogliosis, often associated with neural damage, was present. Dentate gyrus neurogenesis was also affected by the disease: proliferation and differentiation measured by bromodeoxyuridine immunodetection were significantly reduced in both experimental models used. Several facts, including changes associated with chronic hyperglycemia, hyperstimulation of the HPA axis, increased levels of circulating glucocorticoids in combination with brain inflammation and low production of new neurons, contribute to emphasize the impact of diabetes on the central nervous system.

Adrenal hypersensitivity precedes chronic hypercoricism in streptozotocin-induced diabetes mice Revsin, Yanina; van Wijk, Diane; Saravia, Flavia Eugenia; Oitzl, Melly; de Nicola, Alejandro Federico; de Kloet, Edo Ronald Previous studies have demonstrated that type 1 diabetes is characterized by hypercorticism and lack of periodicity in adrenal hormone secretion. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that hypercorticism is initiated by an enhanced release of ACTH leading subsequently to adrenocortical growth and increased output of adrenocortical hormones. To test this hypothesis, we used the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes mouse model and measured hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity at different time points. The results showed that the expected rise in blood glucose levels induced by STZ treatment preceded the surge in corticosterone secretion, which took place 1 d after diabetes onset. Surprisingly, circulating ACTH levels were not increased and even below control levels until 1 d after diabetes onset and remained low until d 11 during hypercorticism. In response to ACTH (but not vasopressin), cultures of adrenal gland cells from 11-d diabetic mice secreted higher amounts of corticosterone than control cells. Real-time quantitative PCR revealed increased expression of melanocortin 2 and melanocortin 5 receptors in the adrenal glands at 2 and 11 d of STZ-induced diabetes. AVP mRNA expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus was increased, whereas hippocampal MR mRNA was decreased in 11-d diabetic animals. GR and CRH mRNAs remained unchanged in hippocampus and paraventricular nucleus of diabetic mice at all time points studied. These results suggest that sensitization of the adrenal glands to ACTH rather than an increase in circulating ACTH level is the primary event leading to hypercorticism in the STZ-induced diabetes mouse model.

Mating system, outcrossing distance effects and pollen availability in the wind-pollinated treeline species Polylepis australis BITT. (Rosaceae) Seltmann, Peggy; Cocucci, Andrea Aristides; Renison, Daniel; Cierjacks, Arne; Hensen, Isabell Fragmentation may negatively affect plant fitness through pollen limitation and increased levels of inbreeding. Effects of fragmentation may vary with regard to life form and breeding system, and few studies exist for wind- pollinated trees. We examined the effects of hand-selfing, varying outcrossing distances and pollen addition on seed mass and germination rate of Polylepis australis BITT. (Rosaceae), a wind-pollinated treeline species endemic to Argentina. We also investigated pollen germination on the stigma and pollen tube growth to determine compatibility resulting from selfing and outcrossing. Selfing reduced seed germination rates with significant differences between open pollination and outcrosses at 30km. In addition, we found a tendency for pollen germination and pollen tube growth to decrease following selfing. Between-fragment crosses resulted in a trend of higher reproductive out put than within- fragment crosses, whereas values were similar between open pollination and between-fragment crosses. Pollen addition did not increase reproductive success neither in small nor in larger fragments. Our results suggest that highly isolated P. australis forests have a potential for inbreeding depression through selfing and within-fragment crosses. However, the results also indicate that pollen flow between P. australis forest fragments is still effective at the current fragmentation level, counteracting negative effects on seed quality resulting from reproductive isolation.; Durch Habitatzerstörung und Fragmentierung isolierte und kleine Populationen leiden häufig unter erhöhter Inzuchtdepression und Pollenlimitierung, deren Ausmaß jedoch in Abhängigkeit von Lebensform und Fortpflanzungssystem variiert. In der vorliegenden Studie untersuchten wir den Einfluss von Hand-Selbstbestäubung, verschiedenen Kreuzungsdistanzen bis zu 30 km und Pollenzugabe auf Samenmasse und -keimung von Polylepis australis (Rosaceae), einer windbestäubten, in Argentinien endemischen Baumart der oberen Waldgrenze. Darüber hinaus analysierten wir den Einfluss von Selbst- und Fremdbestäubung auf Pollenkeimung und Pollenschlauchwachstum. Selbstbestäubung führte zu signifikant geringeren Keimraten im Vergleich zu natürlicher Bestäubung und Fremdbestäubung mit Pollen aus >30 km Distanz. Auch fanden wir eine Tendenz zur Reduktion von Pollenkeimung und Pollenschlauchwachstum nach Selbstbestäubung. Kreuzungen zwischen Fragmenten führten zu höherem Reproduktionserfolg als Kreuzungen innerhalb von Fragmenten, während der Reproduktionserfolg aus natürlicher Bestäubung und aus Kreuzungen zwischen Fragmenten vergleichbare Werte aufwies. Weder in kleinen noch in großen Populationen führte die Zugabe von Pollen zu einer Erhöhung des Reproduktionserfolges. Unsere Ergebnisse machen deutlich, dass zwar in stark isolierten P. australis Wäldern die Gefahr für Inzuchtdepression besteht, der nach wie vor effektive Pollen- und Genfluss zwischen Waldfragmenten von P. australis jedoch negativen Isolationseffekten entgegenwirkt.

Widespread inhibition proportional to excitation controls the gain of a leech behavioral circuit Baca, Serapio M.; Marin Burgin, Antonia; Wagenaar, Daniel A.; Kristan, William B. Changing gain in a neuronal system has important functional consequences, but the underlying mechanisms have been elusive. Models have suggested a variety of neuronal and systems properties to accomplish gain control. Here, we show that the gain of the neuronal network underlying local bending behavior in leeches depends on widespread inhibition. Using behavioral analysis, intracellular recordings, and voltage-sensitive dye imaging, we compared the effects of blocking just the known lateral inhibition with blocking all GABAergic inhibition. This revealed an additional source of inhibition, which was widespread and increased in proportion to increasing stimulus intensity. In a model of the input/output functions of the three-layered local bending network, we showed that inhibiting all interneurons in proportion to the stimulus strength produces the experimentally observed change in gain. This relatively simple mechanism for controlling behavioral gain could be prevalent in vertebrate as well as invertebrate nervous systems.

The axon-guidance roundabout gene alters the pace of the Drosophila circadian clock Berni, Jimena; Beckwith, Esteban Javier; Fernandez, María Paz; Ceriani, Maria Fernanda Great efforts have been directed to the dissection of the cell-autonomous circadian oscillator in Drosophila. However, less information is available regarding how this oscillator controls rhythmic rest-activity cycles. We have identified a viable allele of roundabout, robo(hy), where the period of locomotor activity is shortened. From its role in axon-pathfinding, we anticipated developmental defects in clock-relevant structures. However, robo(hy) produced minor defects in the architecture of the circuits essential for rhythmic behaviour. ROBO's presence within the circadian circuit strengthened the possibility of a novel role for ROBO at this postdevelopmental stage. Genetic interactions between pdf (01) and robo(hy) suggest that ROBO could alter the communication within different clusters of the circadian network, thus impinging on two basic properties, periodicity and/or rhythmicity. Early translocation of PERIOD to the nucleus in robo(hy) pacemaker cells indicated that shortened activity rhythms were derived from alterations in the molecular oscillator. Herein we present a mutation affecting clock function associated with a molecule involved in circuit assembly and maintenance.

The Lattice of Subvarieties of Monadic Lukasiewicz Algebras Abad, Manuel; Díaz Varela, José Patricio; Rueda, Laura Alicia; Suardíaz, Ana In this paper we describe the lattice of subvarieties of the variety ofmonadic Łukasiewicz-Moisil algebras. We then characterize all these subvarieties by means of identities.

Dictadura y desapariciones en Argentina: memoria, conocimiento y reconocimiento Crenzel, Emilio Ariel Este artículo examina los obstáculos novedosos que instaló el ejercicio sistemático de las desapariciones por parte del Estado Argentino desde el golpe militar de 1976 para la evocación de sus víctimas y para el conocimiento de la naturaleza de este crimen. Por un lado, en él se analiza como las desapariciones quebraron los marcos sociales básicos para evocarlas e integrarlas en un relato con sentido. Por otro lado, se expone, a partir del análisis de las principales denuncias durante la dictadura, como sus cualidades particulares tornaron profundamente heterogéneo el conocimiento y el reconocimiento de sus atributos aun entre las relaciones sociales de los desaparecidos y la militancia política dentro y fuera del país. El trabajo que aquí se presenta, se inscribe en el intento por pensar los dilemas y consecuencias específicas que las desapariciones plantearon para el ejercicio de la memoria y la producción de conocimiento sobre ellas en la sociedad argentina.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir: A comparison of species richness in native western North American forests and Patagonian plantations from Argentina Barroetaveña, Carolina; Cázares, E.; Rajchenberg, Mario The putative ectomycorrhizal fungal species registered from sporocarps associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests in their natural range distribution (i.e., western Canada, USA and Mexico) and from plantations in south Argentina and other parts of the world are listed. One hundred and fifty seven taxa are reported for native ponderosa pine forests and 514 taxa for native Douglas-fir forests based on available literature and data bases. A small group of genera comprises a high proportion of the species richness for native Douglas fir (i.e., Cortinarius, Inocybe and Russula), while in native ponderosa pine the species richness is more evenly distributed among several genera. The comparison between ectomycorrhizal species richness associated with both trees in native forests and in Patagonia (Argentina) shows far fewer species in the latter, with 18 taxa for ponderosa pine and 15 for Douglas-fir. Epigeous species richness is clearly dominant in native Douglas fir while a more balanced relation epigeous/hypogeous richness is observed for native ponderosa pine; a similar trend was observed for Patagonian plantations. Most fungi in Patagonian Douglas fir plantations have not been recorded in plantations elsewhere, except Suillus lakei and Thelephora terrestris, and only 56% of the fungal taxa recorded in Douglas fir plantations around the world are known from native forests, the other taxa being new associations for this host, suggesting that new tree+ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa associations are favored in artificial situations as plantations.